Olympic sport does not ban Russian and Belarusian athletes (although there may be signs of change)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.30937/2526-6314.v6.id154Keywords:
Olympism, Russian athletes, participationAbstract
- On February 24, 2022, a few days after the Closing Ceremony of the Beijing 2022 Winter Olympic Games and before the Opening Ceremony of the Paralympic Games an armed conflict has started between Russia and Ukraine which was immediately followed by the condemnation of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) for failure to comply with the Olympic truce. Shortly thereafter, the Executive Board (EB) recommended preventing Russian and Belarusian athletes from participating in international events to protect the integrity of sporting competitions and the safety of participants and, where this is not possible, to take all precautions to prevent those athletes from competing under the symbols of their nations. Given the exceptional circumstances that led to this recommendation, it was reiterated that for fairness no sanctions should be imposed on athletes, except in cases of active behavior in the decisions of their respective governments. On March 3, the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) has announced the non-admission of Russian and Belarusian athletes to the Beijing 2022 Paralympic Games. It will be concluded that, although these are decisions formally linked to reasons for the protection of athletes and competitions, they are not adequately accompanied by justifications that recall the principles of Olympism and may not be effective as a means of promoting peace.
Downloads
References
FIFA. Bureau of the FIFA Council takes initial measures with regard to war in Ukraine [cited 5 mar 2022]. 27 February 2022 [online]. Available at https://www.fifa.com/tournaments/mens/worldcup/qatar2022/media-releases/bureau-of-the-fifa-council-takes-initial-measures-with-regard-to-war-in.
ITF. ITF suspends Russia, Belarus from ITF membership and team competition [cited 5 mar 2022]. 1 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.itftennis.com/en/news-and-media/articles/itf-statement-itf-suspends-russia-and-belarus-from-itf-membership-and-international-team-competition/.
FIBA. FIBA statement on Russian teams and officials [cited 5 mar 2022]. 1 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.fiba.basketball/news/fiba-statement-on-russian-teams-and-officials.
UEFA. UEFA ends partnership with Gazprom [cited 5 mar 2022]. 28 February 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.uefa.com/insideuefa/mediaservices/mediareleases/news/0272-148df50f5c71-e40e92534a4b-1000--uefa-ends-partnership-with-gazprom/.
European Commission. Ukraine: EU agrees to exclude key Russian banks from SWIFT [cited 5 mar 2022]. 2 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_22_1484.
IPC. IPC makes decisions regarding RPC and NPC Belarus [cited 5 mar 2022]. 2 March 2022b. [Online]. Available at https://www.paralympic.org/press-release/ipc-makes-decisions-regarding-rpc-and-npc-belarus.
IPC. IPC to decline athlete entries from RPC and NPC Belarus for Beijing 2022 [cited 05 mar 2022]. 03 March 2022c. [Online]. Available at https://www.paralympic.org/news/ipc-decline-athlete-entries-rpc-and-npc-belarus-beijing-2022.
IOC. IOC EB recommends no participation of Russian and Belarusian athletes and officials [cited 05 mar 2022]. 28 February 2022. [Online]. Available at https://olympics.com/ioc/news/ioc-eb-recommends-no-participation-of-russian-and-belarusian-athletes-and-officials.
IOC. Olympic Charter. Lausanne: IOC; 2021.
O'Donnell N. A long history of politics and protest at the Olympics [cited 11 mar 2022]. 7 February 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.nbcbayarea.com/news/national-international/a-long-history-of-politics-and-protest-at-the-olympics/2803756/.
Mustikawati R. The games of the New Emerging Forces (GANEFO) 1963: The Olympics of the left [cited jun 2020]. 7 February 2022. [Online]. Available at http://www.ijch.net/vol6/144-ED5006.pdf.
Schoeman R, Cloete H. Find out why South Africa was barred from the Olympics for 32 years [cited 11 mar 2022]. 26 July 2018. [Online]. Available at https://olympics.com/en/featured-news/why-south-africa-barred-from-the-olympics-apartheid.
Novak A. Rhodesia and the Olympic Games: representations of masculinity, war and Empire, 1965–1980. Sport in Society, 2015;18(7):853-867.
IOC. IOC delegation visits Afghanistan [cited 11 mar 2022]. 11 June 2003. [Online]. Available at https://olympics.com/ioc/news/ioc-delegation-visits-afghanistan.
IOC. IOC suspends Russian NOC and creates a path for clean individual athletes to compete in PyeongChang 2018 under the Olympic Flag [cited 6 mar 2022]. 5 December 2017. [Online]. Available at https://olympics.com/ioc/news/ioc-suspends-russian-noc-and-creates-a-path-for-clean-individual-athletes-to-compete-in-pyeongchang-2018-under-the-olympic-flag.
IOC. North Korea banned from Beijing Winter Olympics, other IOC benefits [cited 11 mar 2022]. 8 September 2021. [Online]. Available at https://olympics.com/ioc/news/ioc-executive-board-suspends-noc-of-democratic-people-s-republic-of-korea.
Bajc V. The Olympic Games as complex planned event: between uncertainty and order through security meta-ritual. In: Surveilling and Securing the Olympics. London: Palgrave Macmillan; 2016. p. 21-71.
Associated Press. North Korea says it will miss Beijing Olympics, blaming pandemic and 'hostile forces' [cited 11 mar 2022]. 7 January 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/north-korea-says-will-miss-beijing-olympics-blaming-pandemic-hostile-f-rcna11316.
IPC. The IPC suspends the Russian Paralympic Committee with immediate effect [cited 12 mar 2022]. 7 August 2016. [Online]. Available at https://www.paralympic.org/news/ipc-suspends-russian-paralympic-committee-immediate-effect.
Sports Business Journal. Court of arbitration for sport dismisses Russia's appeal of its Paralympics ban [cited 12 mar 2022]. 24 August 2016. [Online]. Available at https://www.sportsbusinessjournal.com/Global/Issues/2016/08/24/Olympics/Russia-Paralympics.aspx.
Bajc V. Surveilling and securing the Olympics: from Tokyo 1964 to London 2012 and beyond. London: Palgrave Macmillan; 2016.
Bajc V. Olympic dilemmas: surveillance, security, democracy. In: Surveilling and securing the Olympics: From Tokyo 1964 to London 2012 and beyond. London: Palgrave Macmillan; 2016. p. 383-398.
The Guardian. IPC will not allow individual Russians to compete as neutrals at Paralympics [cited 20 mar 2022]. 16 September 2016. [Online]. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2016/sep/01/ipc-russian-athletes-paralympics-rio-2016.
Ingle S. Russia’s Paralympic doping ban lifted after IPC praises ‘significant reforms’ [cited 20 mar 2022]. 8 February 2019. [Online]. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2019/feb/08/russia-paralympic-doping-ban-lifted-ipc.
IOC. Olympic Charter. Lausanne: IOC; 1946.
IOC. Olympic Charter. Lausanne: IOC; 1999.
IPC. IPC Handbook. Bonn (GER): IPC; 2013.
UN. A/RES/64/3 - Observer status for the International Olympic Committee in the General Assembly. New York: UN; 2009.
UN. A/RES/64/4 - Building a peaceful and better world through sport and the Olympic ideal. New York: UN; 2009.
UN. A/69/L.5 - Sport for development and peace. New York: UN; 2014.
Bach T. IOC President Thomas Bach reflects on the boycott of the Olympic Games Moscow 1980 40 years later [cited 9 apr 2022]. 16 July 2020 [online]. Available at https://iocnewsroom.com/video/40-years-on-international-olympic-committee-president-thomas-bach-reflects-on-the-boycott-of-the-olympic-games-moscow-1980/
Grassi D. Boycotts of Moscow 1980 & Los Angeles 1984: two different approaches -Same result. ResearhGate. 2021. Doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.20182.73283.
UN. A/RES/76/13 in Building a peaceful and better world through sport and the Olympic ideal. New York: UN; 2021.
UN. Russia blocks Security Council action on Ukraine [cited 12 mar 2022]. 26 February 2022. [Online]. Available at https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/02/1112802.
Ferguson E. Which countries abstained from UN vote on Ukraine? Result of General Assembly’s resolution on Russia explained [cited 20 mar 2022]. 3 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://inews.co.uk/news/un-vote-ukraine-russia-countries-abstained-general-assembly-result-resolution-explained-1495346.
UN News. General Assembly Overwhelmingly adopts resolution demanding Russian Federation immediately end illegal use of force in Ukraine, withdraw all troops," [cited 12 mar 2022]. 2 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.un.org/press/en/2022/ga12407.doc.htm.
EC. REPowerEU: joint European action for more affordable, secure and sustainable energy [cited 12 mar 2022]. 8 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip.
Reuters. Ukrainian president signs formal request to join the European Union [cited 12 mar 2022]. 28 February 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/ukrainian-president-signs-formal-request-join-european-union-2022-02-28/.
European Council. Statement of the heads of state or government, meeting in Versailles, on the Russian military aggression against Ukraine, 10 March 2022 [cited 12 mar 2022]. 11 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2022/03/11/statement-of-the-heads-of-state-or-government-on-the-russian-aggression-against-ukraine-10-03-2022/.
Malveaux S, Zeleny J, Liptak K, Stracqualursi V. Zelensky calls for no-fly zone and harsher sanctions on Russia in zoom meeting with US lawmakers [cited 12 mar 2022]. 6 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://edition.cnn.com/2022/03/05/politics/ukraine-russia-zelensky-us-lawmakers/index.html.
Stoltenberg J. Speech by NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg at the Ottawa Conference on Security and Defense”. [cited 09 apr 2022]. 9 March 2022. Available at https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/opinions_193055.htm.
The White House. Fact Sheet: joined by allies and partners, the United States imposes devastating costs on Russia [cited 13 mar 2022]. 24 February 2022a. [Online]. Available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/02/24/fact-sheet-joined-by-allies-and-partners-the-united-states-imposes-devastating-costs-on-russia/.
EC. A united EU response to Russia's aggression against Ukraine [cited 13 mar 2022]. 24 February 2022. [Online]. Available at https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/stronger-europe-world/eu-solidarity-ukraine.
Gov.uk. UK introduces new sanctions against Russia including ban on ships and fresh financial measures [cited 13 mar 2022]. 1 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-introduces-new-sanctions-against-russia-including-ban-on-ships-and-fresh-financial-measures.
The White House. Fact sheet: United States, European Union, and G7 to announce further economic costs on Russia [cited 13 mar 2022]. 11 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/03/11/fact-sheet-united-states-european-union-and-g7-to-announce-further-economic-costs-on-russia/.
Henley J. What sanctions have been imposed on Russia over Ukraine invasion? [cited 13 mar 2022]. 28 February 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/28/what-sanctions-imposed-on-russia-over-ukraine-invasion-putin.
Aljazeera. Russia faces growing cultural backlash over war on Ukraine [cited 13 mar 2022]. 2 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/3/2/russia-ukraine-war-arts-culture-backlash-boycott.
UN. The International Bill of Human Rights. New York: UN; 1948.
UNESCO. Education for peace: planning for curriculum reform [cited 13 mar 2022]. February 2015. Available at http://www.ibe.unesco.org/sites/default/files/resources/education-for-peace-2015.pdf. 50 Sandoval-Hernández A, Isac MM, Miranda D. Measurement strategy for SDG Global Indicator 4.7.1 and Thematic Indicators 4.7.4 and 4.7.5 using International Large-Scale Assessments in education: proposal [cited 13 mar 2022]. 2019. Available at https://researchportal.bath.ac.uk/en/publications/measurement-strategy-for-sdg-global-indicator-471-and-thematic-in.
FUND SDG. The contribution of sports to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals: A toolkit for action. New York, NY: Department of Economic and Social Affairs; 2018.
Amnesty International. China: world must use Winter Olympics to demand human rights improvements [cited 13 mar 2022]. 14 January 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2022/01/china-world-must-use-winter-olympics-to-demand-human-rights-improvements/.
Worden M. Human rights abuses will taint the Olympics and the World Cup. It’s time to end ‘sportswashing’ now [cited 13 mar 2022]. 3 January 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2022/01/03/beijing-olympics-human-rights-world-cup-qatar-sportswashing/.
Piccirillo M. La mappa del potere di Putin sullo sport: ecco le “sue” federazioni [cited 5 mar 2022]. 3 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.dire.it/03-03-2022/712746-la-mappa-del-potere-di-putin-sullo-sport-ecco-le-sue-federazioni/.
IJF. Official announcement of the International Judo Federation [cited 5 mar 2022]. 27 February 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.ijf.org/news/show/official-announcement-of-the-international-judo-federation.
Bach T. Speech on the occasion of the Opening Ceremony 127th IOC Session [cited 9 Apr 2022]. 7 December 2014. Available at https://stillmed.olympic.org/Documents/IOC_Executive_Boards_and_Sessions/IOC_Sessions/127_Session_Monaco_2014/127th_IOC_Session_Speech_Opening_Ceremony_President_Bach-English.pdf.
Hernández JC. Valery Gergiev, a Putin ally, fired as chief conductor in Munich [cited 11 mar 2022]. 1 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/01/arts/music/valery-gergiev-fired-munich-ukraine.html.
IOC. Olympic Charter. Lausanne: IOC; 1975.
IOC. Olympic Charter. Lausanne: IOC; 1967.
Nittle NK. Why black american athletes raised their fists at the 1968 Olympics [cited 5 mar 2022]. 25 May 2021. [Online]. Available at https://www.history.com/news/black-athletes-raise-fists-1968-olympics.
Coventry K. IOC Athletes’ Commission’s recommendations on Rule 50 and Athlete Expression [cited 5 mar 2022]. 21 April 2021. [Online]. Available at https://olympics.com/athlete365/voice/ioc-athletes-commissions-recommendations-on-rule-50-and-athlete-expression/.
Dw.com. Euro 2020: Germany join England in kneeling protest [cited 5 mar 2022]. 29 june 2021. [Online]. Available at https://www.dw.com/en/euro-2020-germany-join-england-in-kneeling-protest/a-58084605.
Cornwell B. Power sharing: Olympic sponsorship and the athlete’s personal brand. In: Olympic and Paralympic Analysis 2020: Mega events, media, and the politics of sport - early reflections from leading academics. Poole (GB): The Centre for Comparative Politics and Media Research; 2021. p. 20-21.
Boykoff J. Athlete activism and the Olympic Games - A dialectic of resistance and restriction. In: Athlete activism - Contemporary Perspectives. London and New York, Routledge; 2022. p. 8-19.
Schmidt S. Financial implications for athlete activists - The cost of taking a stance. In: Athlete Activism - Contemporary Perspectives. London and New York: Routledge; 2022. p. 44-54.
IOC. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) today announced the first 13 Athlete Role Models (ARMs) who will support the young athletes going to the 3rd Winter Youth Olympic Games from 9 to 22 January 2020 in Lausanne, Switzerland [cited 11 mar 2022]. 25 July 2019. [Online]. Available at https://olympics.com/en/news/sporting-legends-to-support-young-athletes-at-lausanne-2020.
Grassi D. Environmental Olympism: perspectives in sports, Olympic education and culture [thesis]. Sparta (Greece): University of Peloponnese, Faculty of Human Movement and Quality of Life; 2021.
Haslett D, Smith B. Disability, sport and social activism - Para athlete activism. In: Athlete Activism - Contemporary Perspectives. London and New York: Routledge; 2022. p. 65-76.
IOC. IOC Sustainability Report - Sharing progress on our 2020 objectives. Lausanne: IOC; 2018.
IOC. Ethics. Lausanne: IOC; 2022.
Gibson O. London Olympics: athletes who refuse to compete will be 'heavily punished' [cited 09 mar 2022]. 14 June 2012. [Online]. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2012/jun/14/london-olympics-athletes-refuse-compete.
Davidovich J. Still refusing moment of silence, Olympic head says memorial will be held in Germany [cited 9 mar 2022]. 22 July 2012. [Online]. Available at https://www.timesofisrael.com/still-refusing-moment-of-silence-olympic-head-says-memorial-will-be-held-in-germany/.
Reid-Smith T. Olympic Committee threatens to punish athletes who fight for gay Russians [cited 9 mar 2022]. 12 August 2013. [Online]. Available at https://www.gaystarnews.com/article/olympic-committee-threatens-punish-athletes-who-fight-gay-russians120813.
James M. The re-emergence of the athlete activist - rule 50 and the precarious position of free speech under the IOC’s Guidelines [cited 21 mar 2022]. 8 February 2022. [Online]. Available at https://verfassungsblog.de/the-re-emergence-of-the-athlete-activist/.
Roche M. The Olympics and ‘global citizenship'. Citizenship Studies. 2002;6(2):165-181.
IOC. The Fundamentals of Olympic Values Education - A Sports-Based Programe. Lausanne: IOC; 2017.
Sky News. Ukraine war: Russian gymnast Ivan Kuliak who brandished Z symbol at competition says he has no regrets [cited 12 mar 2022]. 8 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://news.sky.com/story/ukraine-war-russian-gymnast-ivan-kuliak-who-brandished-z-symbol-at-competition-says-he-has-no-regrets-12560670.
Blakeley G. Punish the oligarchs, not the poor [cited 16 mar 2022]. 1 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://tribunemag.co.uk/2022/03/russia-ukraine-invasion-putin-economic-sanctions.
Morrow A. It's not the best time to be a Russian oligarch [cited 16 mar 2022]. 3 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://edition.cnn.com/2022/03/02/business/russian-oligarchs-sanctions-assets/index.html.
Hillis F. Seize the oligarchs’ wealth [cited 16 mar 2022]. 26 February 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2022/02/russia-sanctions-punish-rich-oligarchs/622933/.
Kinsella N. Is Chelsea being sold? Abramovich ownership situation & potential new buyers explained [cited 16 mar 2022]. 2 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.goal.com/en/news/is-chelsea-being-sold-abramovich-ownership-situation-new/blt5aa8928c7de21763.
Nevett J. Roman Abramovich: sanctions restrict rent payments to Crown Estate [cited 16 mar 2022]. 15 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-60739598.
Knight S. The endgame of the oligarch who owns Chelsea [cited 16 mar 2022]. 15 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.newyorker.com/news/letter-from-the-uk/the-endgame-of-the-oligarch-who-owns-chelsea.
Close D. Roman Abramovich, Russian owner of Chelsea FC, to sell club after Ukraine invasion [cited 16 mar 2022]. 10 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://edition.cnn.com/2022/03/02/sport/chelsea-football-club-sale-spt/index.html.
TASS. Russian Paralympic Committee unable to challenge decision to exclude its athletes [cited 20 mar 2022]. 4 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://tass.com/sport/1416521?utm_source=google.com&utm_medium=organic&utm_campaign=google.com&utm_referrer=google.com.
CNN. Russian and Belarusian athletes banned from Beijing 2022 Winter Paralympics [cited 12 mar 2022]. 3 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://edition.cnn.com/europe/live-news/ukraine-russia-putin-news-03-03-22/h_bf6877365680181968a7881b8faae5d8.
IPC. IPC to decline athlete entries from RPC and NPC Belarus for Beijing 2022 [cited 12 mar 2022]. 3 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.paralympic.org/news/ipc-decline-athlete-entries-rpc-and-npc-belarus-beijing-2022.
Anglesey A. Ukraine fencing team refuses to face Russia, withdraws from World Cup [cited 12 mar 2022]. 1 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.newsweek.com/ukraine-fencing-team-refuses-face-russia-withdraws-world-cup-1683546.
Aljazeera. Russian and Belarusian athletes have on Thursday been banned from the Beijing Winter Paralympics over the war in Ukraine with organizers bowing to international pressure and threats of a boycott [cited 12 mar 2022]. 3 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/3/3/russian-belarusian-athletes-banned-from-paralympics-over-ukraine.
Euronews. Ukraine war: Russian and Belarusian athletes banned from Beijing Paralympics [cited 12 mar 2022]. 3 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.euronews.com/2022/03/03/ukraine-war-russian-and-belarusian-athletes-banned-from-beijing-paralympics.
Gillespie T. Ukraine invasion: IOC recommends Russian and Belarusian athletes should be banned from all international competitions [cited 16 mar 2022]. 28 February 2022. [Online]. Available at https://news.sky.com/story/ukraine-invasion-ioc-recommends-russian-and-belarusian-athletes-should-be-banned-from-all-international-competitions-12554151.
George MD. IOC recommends barring Russian, Belarusian athletes after anvasion of Ukraine [cited 16 mar 2022]. 28 February 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.swimmingworldmagazine.com/news/ioc-recommends-barring-russian-belarusian-athletes-after-invasion-of-ukraine/.
Aljazeera. IOC calls for ban on Russian athletes amid Ukraine invasion [cited 16 mar 2022]. 28 February 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.aljazeera.com/sports/2022/2/28/intl-olympics-committee-calls-for-ban-on-russians-from-sports.
Blinder A, Panja T. Russia faces global sports crackdown after invasion of Ukraine [cited 16 mar 2022]. 28 February 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/28/sports/olympics/international-olympic-committee-russia-belarus.html.
McGarry A. Why Russia's international sporting reputation lies in ruins thanks to a series of doping revelations [cited 17 mar 2022]. 19 July 2016. [Online]. Available at https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-07-19/russias-road-to-sporting-catastrophe/7638818.
Pells E. Ukraine invasion puts Russia's elite sports status at risk [cited 17 mar 2022]. 27 February 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.cbc.ca/sports/ukraine-invasion-puts-russia-elite-sports-status-at-risk-1.6366260.
Serhan Y. Why the cultural boycott of Russia matters [cited 5 mar 2022]. 2 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2022/03/ukraine-russia-culture-boycott-putin/623873/.
France 24; Chelsea owner Roman Abramovich hit by UK sanctions [cited 13 mar 2022]. 10 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220310-chelsea-owner-roman-abramovich-hit-by-uk-sanctions.
FIFA. FIFA/UEFA suspend Russian clubs and national teams from all competitions [cited 26 mar 2022]. 28 February 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.fifa.com/tournaments/mens/worldcup/qatar2022/media-releases/fifa-uefa-suspend-russian-clubs-and-national-teams-from-all-competitions.
Trtworld. FIFA kicks Russia out of 2022 World Cup [cited 17 mar 2022]. 28 February 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.trtworld.com/sport/fifa-kicks-russia-out-of-2022-world-cup-55171.
Baxter K. Peace for a day: How soccer brought a brief truce to World War I on Christmas Day 1914 [cited 20 mar 2022]. 24 December 2021. [Online]. Available at https://www.latimes.com/sports/soccer/story/2021-12-24/christmas-truce-soccer-world-war-germany-britain-adolf-hitler.
France24. Russian cosmonauts receive warm welcome at International Space Station [cited 20 mar 2022]. 19 March 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20220319-russian-cosmonauts-receive-warm-welcome-at-international-space-station.
Parry J. Olympism for the 21st century. Barcelona: Centre d’Estudis Olímpics; 2003.
Frank AG. The development of underdevelopment. In: Sociological worlds - Comparative and historical readings on society. London and New York: Routledge; 2003. p. 135-141.
Miceli TG, Segerson K. Punishing the innocent along with the guilty: the economics of individual versus group punishment. The Journal of Legal Studies; 2007;36(1):81-106.
Grassi D. NATO: è il momento per un nuovo concetto strategico? [thesis]. Venezia: Istituto di Studi Militari Marittimi; 2006.
Aguirresarobe AH. Is national identity in crisis? An assessment of national imaginations in the early 2020s. Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism. 2022;22(1):1-14.
Jiménez R, María A, Llinares NA, Fuentevilla EF. National Identities in troubled times: Germany and Southern European Countries after the Great Recession. Genealogy. 2021;5(40):1-24.
Wang Z. From crisis to nationalism? The conditioned effects of the COVID-19 Crisis on Neo-nationalism in Europe. Chinese Political Science Review. 2021;2:20-39.
Keys B. Soviet sport and transnational mass culture in the 1930s. Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing Newsletter. 2003;38(3):413-434.
Nygård MH., Gates S. Sport diplomacy, politics and peace-building. International Area Studies Review. 2013;16(3):235-243.
Nye JS. The future of power. New York: Public Affairs; 2011.
Sabbagh D, Beaumont P. War in Ukraine: where has Russia attacked? [cited 05 mar 2022]. 24th February 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/24/war-ukraine-kyiv-map-where-has-russia-attacked.
IOC. IOC strongly condemns the breach of the Olympic Truce [cited 05 mar 2022]. 24 February 2022. [Online]. Available at https://olympics.com/ioc/news/ioc-strongly-condemns-the-breach-of-the-olympic-truce.
IOC. Beijing 2022 opening and closing ceremonies [cited 5 mar 2022]. 20 February 2022a. [Online]. Available at https://olympics.com/en/beijing-2022/ceremonies.
Paralympic Org. Beijing 2022 - Paralympic Winter Games - 04-13 March [cited 5 mar 2022]. 2022. [Online]. Available at https://www.paralympic.org/beijing-2022.
Nye JS. Obama’s smart power. New Perspectives Quarterly. 2009;26(2):7-9.
Edwards H. The revolt of the black athlete. Urbana, USA: University of Illinois Press; 2017.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
The authors authorize others to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format. Remix, transform, and create from the material. You may not use the material for commercial purposes.
